In 1860, Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election without carrying a single Southern state. That alone tells you how divided the nation was. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would abolish slavery, even though he had only promised to stop its expansion. In response, 11 Southern states chose secession, forming the Confederate States of America under Jefferson Davis.
A last-minute effort to preserve the Union came in the form of the Crittendon Compromise, a proposal to guarantee slavery where it already existed and extend it westward. But Lincoln refused to allow slavery to spread, and the compromise died.
Boom! Fort Sumter and the War Begins
The first shots of the war came in April 1861 at Fort Sumter, a federal fort in South Carolina. Confederate troops bombarded the fort, forcing Union soldiers to surrender. The Civil War had begun.
Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion. In response, more Southern states joined the Confederacy. The North adopted the Anaconda Plan, designed to blockade Southern ports and gain control of the Mississippi River, strangling the South economically.
Early battles dashed hopes for a quick victory. At the Battle of First Bull Run, spectators came to picnic and watch what they thought would be a brief skirmish. Instead, Union troops were routed by Confederate forces, including Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson, who earned his nickname by holding firm under pressure.
Leadership in the Union Army changed often. George McClellan was overly cautious. Ambrose Burnside led the disastrous assault at Fredericksburg. Joseph Hooker lost at Chancellorsville, where Stonewall Jackson was mistakenly shot by his own men and later died.
The War Gets Real: Shiloh, Emancipation, and Gettysburg
Out west, Ulysses S. Grant began gaining ground for the Union. In 1862, the Battle of Shiloh was a bloody two-day fight that showed just how brutal this war would be. Grant’s victories were crucial to executing the Anaconda Plan.
In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory free. This didn’t free everyone, but it changed the war’s purpose to include the fight against slavery. It also allowed Black men to join the Union Army, leading to heroic units like the 54th Massachusetts.
Back home, the Union faced internal conflict. The Copperheads, a group of Northern Democrats, opposed the war and wanted peace. Meanwhile, the Draft Riots of 1863 in New York City broke out after the Union instituted conscription—a draft that allowed the wealthy to pay for substitutes, while the poor were forced to serve.
Gettysburg and Vicksburg: The Turning Point
In July 1863, the Union won two major victories: the Battle of Gettysburg and the Siege of Vicksburg. George Meade repelled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg, marking the Confederacy’s last attempt to invade the North. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address redefined the war as a fight to preserve a government “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
Meanwhile, Grant laid siege to Petersburg, using siege warfare and attrition to slowly wear down Lee’s army. The war was becoming a battle of endurance. On another front, William T. Sherman marched from Atlanta to Savannah, devastating the South in what he called Total War, destroying railroads, crops, and morale.
Union generals like Philip Sheridan and George Thomas won key battles in Tennessee and Virginia. On the Confederate side, leaders like James Longstreet, Jeb Stuart, Nathan Bedford Forrest, John Bell Hood, and Albert Sidney Johnston fought valiantly but couldn’t turn the tide.
Victory and Tragedy
In April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the war. Just days later, Lincoln gave his Second Inaugural Address, urging forgiveness and unity. Tragically, he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s Theatre only days after the surrender.
The human cost was immense. Over 600,000 Americans died. Clara Barton, known as the “Angel of the Battlefield,” cared for wounded soldiers and later founded the American Red Cross. Matthew Brady captured the war through photography, bringing the brutal reality to the public.
Conditions for soldiers were often horrific. The Confederate prison Andersonville, commanded by Henry Wirz, became infamous for overcrowding, starvation, and disease. Wirz was later executed for war crimes.
The war saw innovations like ironclads, showcased in the Monitor vs. Merrimac battle, and the Confederate submarine Hunley, which made history by sinking a Union warship.
Reconstruction: The Fight to Rebuild
Lincoln had planned a gentle reunification through the Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, also known as the 10% Plan—if 10% of a state’s voters took a loyalty oath, they could rejoin the Union. But after Lincoln’s death, Andrew Johnson took over and clashed with Congress over how to rebuild the South.
Radical Republicans, led by Thaddeus Stevens, pushed for full rights for formerly enslaved people. Congress passed the 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery), 14th Amendment (guaranteeing citizenship), and 15th Amendment (granting Black men the right to vote).
Meanwhile, Black Codes in the South tried to limit Black freedom. Congress passed the Civil Rights Acts of 1866 and 1875 to combat this. They also created the Freedmen’s Bureau to help former slaves with housing, education, and legal support. There was talk of giving freed families 40 acres and a mule, but it rarely happened.
Despite pushback, African Americans made strides. Hiram Rhodes Revels and Joseph Rainey became the first Black members of Congress. But there was fierce resistance. The Ku Klux Klan emerged to terrorize Black communities. Congress passed the Enforcement Acts to crack down, but challenges remained.
Northerners who came South to help were called Carpetbaggers, while Southern whites who supported Reconstruction were labeled Scalawags. Many freed families became trapped in Sharecropping, a farming system that kept them in poverty.
Johnson’s presidency was so contentious that Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act to limit his power—leading to his impeachment (he survived removal by just one vote).
The End of Reconstruction: Politics and Compromise
The Election of 1876 between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel Tilden was disputed. The Compromise of 1877 gave Hayes the presidency in exchange for ending Reconstruction. Federal troops withdrew from the South, and many of the gains for African Americans were rolled back.
A Legacy That Still Echoes
The Civil War preserved the Union and ended slavery, but it left deep scars. Its legacy includes the ongoing struggle for racial equality and civil rights. It’s a story of tragedy, courage, injustice, and resilience—and one that continues to shape America today.